Likelihood Ratio Positive And Positive Predictive Value Health Essay Essays

Likelihood Ratio Positive And Positive Predictive Value Health Essay Essays Likelihood Ratio Positive And Positive Predictive Value Health Essay Essay Likelihood Ratio Positive And Positive Predictive Value Health Essay Essay and allows the doctor to find the importance of a positive trial consequence. An alternate method of finding the post-test chance uses likelihood ratios. The likeliness ratio ( LR ) communicates the chance that a given trial consequence would happen in a patient with the mark disease compared to a patient without the disease. Unlike PPV, LR is non reliant on pre-test chance. A positive LR is calculated by sensitivity/ ( 1 specificity ) , whereas a negative LR is calculated by ( 1 sensitiveness ) /specificity. Using a likeliness ratio nomograph, the post-test chance can be rapidly determined utilizing the deliberate LR and pre-test chance. B ) Define and contrast analytic and descriptive experimental surveies ( 2 Markss ) Descriptive surveies are used to supply information on the forms of happening of a peculiar disease within the population, such as prevalence or incidence. They describe the distribution of exposure and result variables, and are of import in exciting hypotheses such as possible hazard factors for disease. Study types include cross-sectional surveies and clinical observations described in instance studies and case-series. Analytic surveies provided critical analysis of the relationship between two factors, the consequence of an intercession or exposure on an result. Within such surveies hypotheses can be tested utilizing observation or experimentation, comparing rate of results in control group to intercession or exposed group. Such surveies include randomised controlled tests, cohort surveies and case-control surveies. Q2. An research worker would wish to measure the association of goiter and decreased I consumption in a community-based instance control survey in Nigeria. Persons with goiter will be compared with controls. The survey was located in a low income country in Nigeria and those with goiters were largely low-income persons. The research workers were surprised to happen those with a low BMI were more likely to hold goitre. They conclude that a low BMI causes goiter. a ) Do you hold or differ with the research worker? Explain your reply in a few sentences ( 2 Markss ) I disagree. The survey investigated the association of goiter with decreased iodine consumption, yet concluded that a low BMI causes goiter. Bing an experimental survey missing any intercessions, it is hard to definitively set up causality. There is no suggestion that the survey adjusted for any confounding variables related to both BMI and the development of goiter, such as income degrees or age. Failure to set for normally associated factors hinders the disclosure of true associations. For illustration, it is wholly executable that low BMI and goiter are both results of exposure to nutritionally-deficient repasts afforded by those with low income. Further survey is required to measure if low BMI meets the Bradford Hill standards for causality of goiter, using the right analytical survey type, commanding confounding and extinguishing prejudice. B ) Explain in a few words what type of bias/error may be present ( 1 grade ) Recall prejudice. Reliance on callback may take to measurement prejudice, due to inaccurate remembrance or measuring of anterior iodine consumption by both topics and controls. Further to this, choice prejudice may be if the control population was non similar plenty to the instance population. Potentially high variableness, together with measuring prejudice, threatens the internal cogency of the survey. Q3. A survey to measure the association of diabetes and smoke compared a group of hospitalised persons with diabetes ( instances ) with a group of voluntary persons without diabetes ( controls ) who were full-time employees of the same infirmary where the instances were identified. The consequences from this survey reported, for the first clip in the literature, a strong association between diabetes and smoke. a ) What type of prejudice may be present? Why do you surmise the presence of the prejudice you have identified? ( 2 Markss ) Choice prejudice. The diabetics and non-diabetics are sourced from different population samples via differing choice methods. Volunteer prejudice and built-in fluctuation between the two groups may hold unwittingly influenced the strength of association reported. B ) The magnitude of this association is likely to be either over- or underestimated. Which do you believe is the instance, and what makes you believe so? ( 1 grade ) Over-estimated. Volunteers in a survey are frequently more motivated and wellness witting than selected participants, particularly those enduring wellness complications that require hospital admittance. Furthermore, the voluntaries have regular workplace exposure to patients enduring the inauspicious effects of smoke. Therefore there is an increased likeliness of less tobacco users amongst the control group. degree Celsius ) What is the best, executable survey type you would look for to reply this type of research inquiry? ( 1 grade ) An origin cohort. This is best for analyzing the consequence of prognostic hazard factors ( such as smoking ) on an result ( diabetes ) , to clarify alterations in disease incidence, without prejudice. It is non executable to use a randomized controlled test, as it is non ethical to intentionally expose people to the wellness hazards of smoke. Q4. You have a patient who asks you if diminishing meat consumption and increasing the sum of dietetic fresh fruit and veggies will diminish their hereafter hazard of intestine malignant neoplastic disease. You search for and happen the undermentioned article a ) Write the chief survey inquiry addressed by this research paper, in your ain words. ( 1 grade ) Does ingestion of differing nutrient groups or dietetic forms alter the hazard for rectal malignant neoplastic disease in non-Hispanic White persons and African americans? B ) Convert this into the PICO format. ( 2 Markss ) Patient/Population Non-Hispanic Whites and African americans Intervention/Indicator ingestion of specific nutrient groups Comparison ingestion of specific dietetic forms Outcome altered hazard for rectal malignant neoplastic disease degree Celsius ) What is the clinical inquiry type? ( 1 grade ) Aetiology To place hazard factors in incidence of rectal malignant neoplastic disease vitamin D ) What is the survey design? ( 1 grade ) Case-control survey. vitamin E ) Identify and briefly discuss the specific characteristics of the 3 chief causes of prejudice in this survey. 100 words maximal ( 6 Markss ) The research workers acknowledge 3 chief causes of prejudice. First, utilizing the questionnaire format, they risk measurement mistake by sorting ingested nutrients into specific groups for choice, restricting weighting of peculiar nutrients in dietetic forms. Inadequate diverseness in nutrients listed contributes to this measuring prejudice. Second, trust on capable callback of nutrient ingested over the old 12 months poses a important concern for the truth of the survey, due to remember prejudice. Finally, the high Numberss of non-respondents rises inquiries about the being of differences in rectal malignant neoplastic disease hazard between participants and non-participants, implying choice prejudice. degree Fahrenheit ) The paper concludes that higher consumption of fruit, veggies and dairy were associated with reduced rectal malignant neoplastic disease in Caucasians. Discuss these consequences ( Table 2 ) in visible radiation of the 5 major points of the Bradford Hill standards for set uping causal relationships. 200 words maximal ( 10 Markss ) 1. Temporality To demo a clip relationship of alteration in rectal malignant neoplastic disease incidence over clip, the research workers requested callback of diet over the last 12 months. However, this failed to once and for all turn out that ingestion of the nutrient groups ever preceded the decrease in rectal malignant neoplastic disease incidence. 2. Consistency The survey decisions claimed to be by and large associated with similar consequences by different surveies or research workers, and referenced a few surveies back uping their decisions ( mentions 13 to 15 ) . However, this contrasted with the survey by Michels et Al, and without a far greater figure of surveies with comparable findings, consistence can non be established. 3. Strength of association Measurements for fruit, some veggies and dairy showed important decreases in the hazard of rectal malignant neoplastic disease, with odds ratios lt ; 1 back uping strong association ( statistical significance of P lt ; 0.05 ) . 4. Dose-response relationship Increasing degrees of consumption resulted in diminishing incidence for rectal malignant neoplastic disease, evidenced by diminishing odds ratios between groups Q1 to Q4. Evidence for causality requires increasing incidence of disease with increasing exposure but here an opposite relationship applies. 5. Biological plausibleness -It is plausible that nutrients rich in vitamins and fibre lessening the happening of rectal malignant neoplastic disease, as suggested by the research workers.

Cambodian Cultural Institution essays

Cambodian Cultural Institution essays Many younger people, who are just beginning to learn about the history of Southeast Asia, and Cambodia in particular, probably have heard of the terrible things that happened to Cambodia between the years 1970 and 1979. It was the era when the communist Pol Pot regime took over the country and his ruthless policies through genocide slaughtered and starved to death as many as two million Cambodians. All cultural institutions in Cambodia were negatively effected during the Pol Pot period of political history. The movie, The Killing Fields brought the horror of that period of history to all parts of the world. But today, there is a new spirit of hope in Cambodia, the political criminals who were part of the ghastly killing are on trial for their terrible crimes, and the history of Cambodia and the cultural institutions of Cambodia have much to offer visitors and residents too. This paper will relate to the rituals and institutions that are part of the culture of Cambodia, and the cultural places that are precious to Cambodians, such as Angkor Wat. Also, this paper will review the attitudes of Americans toward Cambodians, and towards Cambodian food and culture. NEW YEAR: One of the traditional cultural events in Cambodia, according to research found in Cornell University, is the Cambodian New Year, which takes place April 13 through April 15. This is the dry season in Cambodia, when farmers are not working in their fields as much. In 2008 for the Cambodian Calendar, it is the YEAR OF THE BOAR. The exact time that the New Year will arrive will be determined by astrologers, but before the New Year celebrations, Cambodians will prepare by cleaning their houses, decorating their houses with candles, lights, flowers and star-shaped lanterns. PCHUM BEN: this is a religious ceremony that happens in September; it is a time for all Cambodians (through the Buddhist tradition, since most Cambodians are Buddhists) to...

Empathy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Empathy - Essay Example They are crucial in developing ideas and solutions, in problem solving, effective communication and avoiding or preventing conflicts. (p.119) The idealization of empathy was first explored from the artistic field, where empathy is described as the emotion that one feels when seeing a painting or portrait that is passionately moving or touching. Empathy is beyond knowing the facts. It deals with knowing the sentiments that go along with the facts. I recall a time when a friend of mine was having relationship problems, and she tried to confide her feelings to me. I found it difficult to understand and reach out to her emotions because I approached the matter in a rational and pragmatic way. I was more focused on finding effective results to put her out of the situation that I neglected the fact that her feelings were also another concern that needed to be dealt with. As a result, my friend became frustrated and hurt since she felt that I was not very concerned with how she felt, and that I was taking the issue rather coldly and aloofly. Perhaps, if I was more mindful and concerned with her emotional disposition, and reached out to her feelings instead of treating it rationally, we might have developed a better understanding of each other and her

Derivatives and financial crisis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Derivatives and financial crisis - Assignment Example Such types of derivatives are used based on the type of risk exposure i.e. liquidity, financial, exchange rate risks, etc (Chisholm, 2011). Derivatives were used primarily to hedge risk, but over time people used it to make gains out of the price movements of the underlying assets. The purpose of using derivatives is incumbent on the investment objective. The price volatility of the underlying influenced various investor community to use derivative as a lucrative investment option. Earlier the use of derivatives was not popular, owing to its complexities it was not considered to be a feasible investment option. Over time, it was adopted by various investors to insure the various risks facing them. With various risk outcomes, the fluctuations in the price of the underlying assets made it volatile. Such price volatility attracted speculators, who engaged in the use of derivatives to earn profits. Speculations are done on both the up trends and down trends of the asset price movements. The impact of speculations is felt across the investor community i.e. the hedgers. Speculators gamble on the direction of the asset price m ovement. When a speculator feels that the price of the underlying asset will fall, he will short sell the stock or buy an option. When the price of the asset falls, he exercises the option or buys the underlying asset to make profit. Speculators leverage the vulnerability of the price movements of the asset to make gains. Though all types of derivatives cannot be used to speculate, but futures, options and swaps are lucrative avenues for speculators (Poitras, 2002). From the inception, starting in 1970’s and continuing through the ‘80’s and ‘90’s, the financial market evolved and made it a riskier place for trading. The interest rate changes, bonds and stock markets witnessed phases of increased volatility. Owing to such evolution of risk, investors and managers of financial institutions became wary and resorted to

How soda has negative effects on the body.. such as, obesity, sugars Research Paper

How soda has negative effects on the body.. such as, obesity, sugars etc - Research Paper Example Furthermore, continued extensive research has found that the continued consumption of soda does not only increase one’s waistline, but it also has other devastating effects on the human body (Thorndike, Sonnenberg, Riis, Barraclough and Levy 528). A just concluded study by the UCLA revealed that 62% of adolescents aged between 12 and 17 and 41% of kids aged between 2 and 11 years drank on average a single or more sodas in a day (Bubbling 9). This is seconded by the fact that sales of milk in 2009 were exceeded by almost $5 billion; with comparison data coming from the sales of carbonated beverages which averaged about $18.7 billion the same year (Bubbling 11). The high sales recorded in the carbonated beverages may be attributed to the fact that most, if not all, beverages are cheap and easily affordable by many, including children. The year 2000 saw a consumption of more than 15 billion gallons of soft drinks leaving every man, woman and child with a consumption rate of about one-12 ounce in a single day (Malik, Schulze and Hu 274). The increased consumption of soft drinks, mainly soda, in adolescents can be attributed to the fact that they feel they get more bang for their back by buying a super-size soda rather than an 8-ounce carton of milk with low fat content, about 1% (Malik, Schulze and Hu 275). ... This can be attributed to the easy trap posed by the insane overabundance of flavors and varieties of soft drinks. These flavors and varieties of drinks range from diet, regular, with or with no caffeine, to fruity drinks and a host of other energy drinks. Ludwig, Peterson and Gortmaker (505) believe that that the consumption of soda has a detrimental effect on weight control as a result of the additional calories provided by each sweetened soda and or soft drink. Another study revealed that a soda, for instance, Coke, can serve a whole seventeen teaspoonfuls of sugar in every twenty-oz serving. In addition, Sohn, Burt and Sowers (263) argue that a direct estimate or rather conversion of these teaspoons of sugar to calories estimates to about 240 calories that include 65g of sugar. Many argue that these amounts are insignificant but the major problem is persistent consumption of the drink. According to Thorndike et al. (532) consumption of, say, one or two sodas in a day as per the a verage estimates of the U.S and the trend continues for say a year will result in an accumulation of about 87,600 calories which when converted is around 25 pounds gained in just one year. For a person weighing 150 pounds, Ludwig, Peterson and Gortmaker (506) affirm that this increase will result in an increased disease risk of 16%. As a result, the possibility of one developing type-2 diabetes is increased as well due to the increased concentration and or consumption of sugars (Thorndike et al. 533). In children, the choices made regarding diet are believed to have a direct hand in the prevalence of insulin resistance. Other Risks. Weight control and obesity are not the only issues

Abnormal Psychology and Therapy Essay Example for Free

Abnormal Psychology and Therapy Essay Teresa Neal Abnormal Psychology and Therapy Paper In a world where nothing seems to be considered normal anymore, psychology tries to draw the line between what it is and what is not. The different schools of thought have their own perspective on the definition, origin, and treatment of abnormal behavior and this paper will cover a few, trying to make it possible to have a clear difference between normal and abnormal psychology. Normal and Abnormal Psychology Specifically defining behavior as normal or abnormal is a contentious issue in abnormal psychology. To try to distinguish between normal psychology and abnormal psychology, psychologists use three criteria; whatever is infrequent, maladaptive, and deviant from the cultural norm, falls under the category of abnormal behavior (Spoor, 1999). Mental health, also known as normal psychology, and mental illnesses and disorders, also known as abnormal psychology, have been defined in many ways, but should always be viewed in the context of ethnocultural factors and influence because what is considered normal in some environments may be considered abnormal in others. A person with a normal behavior and mental processes has the ability to adapt and cope with adversity, has a correct perception of reality, accepts self, avoids harm, and experiences continual psychological growth and development (Kowalski Westen, 2009). Abnormal psychology, on the other hand, is characterized by unusual patterns that some people might show in their behavior, thought process, and expression of emotion, patterns that are associated with distress or disability and can cause harm and an unreasonable response to a particular situation. Mental Disorders Daily functions such as the ability to think, read, remember, plan, and understand rely on an individuals cognitive skills (Medalia Revheim, 2002). Cognitive disorders are disorders of thinking or memory that signify an evident change from the personal former level of functioning. In certain situations the exact origin of the disorder can be identified, other cases the cause is unclear. Even though these disorders are biologically founded, the environment and psychological factors play significant roles in shaping the effect and extent of disabling symptoms in addition to the personal capacity to deal with them. (Nevid, et a. 2008). The most common cognitive disorders are amnestic, delirium, and dementia disorders. Amnestic disorders are a cognitive impairment relating a failure to develop new memories and the failure to remember old memories. Delirium is a severe, and reversible state of mental disorder, which involves confusion, and the lack of ability to focus on information or the surrounding environment. Individuals that suffer from delirium may suffer frightening hallucinations, particularly visual hallucinations. The loss of memory and understanding usually associated with behavior and personality changes describes dementia disorders. Different forms of dementia exist, depending on the cause; therefore; some types of dementia may be reversed with treatment. For example; those cases that are caused by brain tumors. Dementia caused by the disease Alzheimer’s cannot be reversed (Nevid, et al. 2008). On a personal note; these patients are difficult, they have to watch be continually as they can do harm to themselves and others. Mental Illnesses Although diagnoses of ADHD are based on behavioral symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity, evidence suggests that children with ADHD also show important cognitive weaknesses in areas that are necessary to daily functioning at home work and school. Particularly research studies indicate that children with ADHD often have problems in; Executive functions (for example, planning a project, keeping attentive to a task, ignoring irrelevant information) Working memory (which is often considered an executive function) speed of information processing (children with ADHD process information more slowly than their peers) Many of these cognitive processes are often interrelated. For example problems in working memory can negatively affect other executive functions, or slow processing speed may lower an individual’s ability to recall and organize information. ttp://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/15499890 From the cognitive perspective, theorists suggest that a person diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorders suffer from impaired information-processing. The impairment is present in defined categories and boundaries that are maladaptive and result in an over-structuring of input but there is no evidence to show that this is the c ause, rather than a consequence of OCD symptoms. Another cognitive theory suggests that OCD fear structures are especially various and a large number of stimuli can become associated with threat or danger. Passive avoidance of such a large number of stimulus associations can be extremely difficult and compulsions become necessary for the individual to feel safe. Although cognitive theories do provide insight into the outward aspect of OCD, they fail to clearly define how and why OCD and this cognitive impairment can arise. Similarities between the Schools of Thought There are quite a few similarities between the different schools of thought in treating mental disorders. All but the Psychodynamic therapies are short term usually lasting a year or less and most all therapies have the client or patient facing the therapist and are conversational. All therapies also look to help the client or patient change behaviors or thought patterns that are causing problems of one kind or another. Cognitive-Behavioral therapies help patients with behavior and cognitive problems. The therapist helps the patient focus on the problematic behavior and helps him or her find ways in which to address these behaviors and learn skills to change them. These therapies use a variety of techniques to help patients with phobias, social skills, accomplishing goals, anxiety disorders, and the like. Psychodynamic therapies both examine the patient’s thought patterns to get to the bottom of the undesired behavior or emotional responses. Humanistic therapies including Gestalt and Client-Centered therapies focus on the patient’s feelings and to experience themselves as they really are. Family, Marital, and Group therapies use group communication either one- on-one or in a group to help with problematic relationships and behaviors. Self-help groups are another type of group therapy that aims to help people either cope with undesired behavior, loss of a loved one, addictions, and disease. [ (Kowalski, 2009) ] The common thread here with most therapies, the approach is a warm relationship with the therapist who shows empathy for the patient or client and giving him or her hope or efficacy in coping with their problem [ (Kowalski, 2009) ] Differences between the Schools of Thought While each school of thought has common factors in treatment methods, each school has developed different ways of addressing psychological problem. For instance, Psychodynamic therapies rely on two principles: the role of insight and the role of the therapist-patient relationship (Kowalski Western, 2009). It is believed that in order for therapeutic change to occur, a person must understand his or her own psychological processes. When in therapy it is one on one; the patient is either face to face with the therapist or lying on a couch with the therapist sitting behind them. Psychodynamic therapy emphasizes the notion that the patients problems stemmed from childhood. These problems follow the child into adulthood causing a conflict within new relationships. This transfer of emotion from past experiences is called transference, one of the techniques psychotherapies rely on. The two main treatments, psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy, are a long term process that focuses on developing awareness of these unconscious feelings. Psychodynamic therapy, like psychoanalysis, consists of three days a week over a long period of time. It is considered that patients who meet at least twice weekly benefit more than those who do not. Unlike psychodynamic therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy focuses on the person’s life as it is now; the current and conscious thought patterns and behavior. They are not concerned with exploring and altering underlying personality patterns or unconscious processes (Kowalski Western,  2009). The focus is on the present feelings and not the childhood experiences. Cognitive-based therapies are relatively short term and direct. Specific recommendations are made to bring about change in behavior. The sessions are well structured with questioning, and the patient usually is sent home with an assignment (Mote, 2011). While most cognitive behavioral techniques try to alter behavior, such as classical conditioning, cognitive therapy focuses on changing dysfunctional cognitions (Kowalski Western, 2009). These behaviors are automatic, and not unconscious. Therapy is a process of identifying and altering these automatic thoughts. Cognitive therapy techniques such as rational-emotional behavior therapy recognize the behaviors and works to mediate between the activating conditions and the emotional reactions. As each of the other therapies are more therapist-patient, Humanistic therapies focus on the world of the patient and qualities that make him or her unique (Mote, 2011). The therapy techniques that are used, Gestalt therapy and Roger’s client centered therapy, are primarily based on becoming aware of one’s own emotions, values, and motivations to bring about change. With group therapy, the individuals are concentrated on the individual dynamics and their reactions in the group process. Family therapy is centered on the structure of the family, and the main roots of conflict in family interaction.

Frameworks of Entrepreneurship

Frameworks of Entrepreneurship Introduction: In the minds of masses, entrepreneurs are placed as solo heroes who after putting a brave fight against all the odds of business world became successful. Traditionally, all theories touted entrepreneurship as an individual act but problems like scarcity of finances, inadequacy of skill set and competitive market forces gave way to a new era in entrepreneurship more commonly termed as Team Entrepreneurship. Objective: The concept and theoretical foundations in this field are still in the stage of infancy. This paper is an attempt to explore the concept of Team Entrepreneurship, trace the definitions and identify the conceptual framework on the basis of the researches done in the field. Findings: Diverse opinions regarding team-building mechanisms, composition and dynamics of the entrepreneurial teams have been observed from the literature. The study also identified the multiple facets in which the entrepreneurial team exists. A conceptual framework depicting the phenomenon of creation and operation of entrepreneurial teams have been developed. Conclusion: Team based entrepreneurial ventures have proved to be successful provided an effective organizational model is developed for its sustenance. Researches have shown a considerable success rate for team ventures especially undertaken at SME level. Global slowdown has significantly highlighted the importance of risk sharing in business ventures. Team entrepreneurship can be considered as the most viable and effective mode of venturing in the present and future scenario given its benefits of sharing of resources, skills, and above all financial risks. INTRODUCTION Management and its practices in the present era has experienced major paradigm shift and one of the most prominent shift is the change in the philosophy from individual excellence to team excellence. Team players rather than solo stars are what companies look for while recruiting people. Performance is judged more specifically on the criterion laid down for the team as a whole. An innovative project these days may not be the baby of a single individual but the soul child of a team. This swing jump from solo show to the band of performers can also be observed in the case of entrepreneurship. Since the seminal work of Birch (1979), many studies have focused on small firms (as their rate of growth can frequently appear more dramatic than that achieved by larger organizations). For a long time it has been a great myth that entrepreneurship implicitly describes the battle of a lonely hero against economic, governmental and social forces (Cooney Bygrave, 1997). Lot of research work could be found where entrepreneurs were identified as individual business founders(Gartner, 1985; Hofer Sandberg, 1986; Carland, Hoy, Boulton, Carland, 1984; Olson, 1987, but team entrepreneurship as an area of study is a more recent phenomenon (Ensley et al., 1999: Kamm et al., 1990). However, over the past 15 years, team entrepreneurship has received increased attention. Based on research conducted from the inside of a fast-growing firm, Alex Stewart shows that entrepreneurship is both collective, a team-based activity and individual, a leader-made creation. It is arguable that despite the romantic notion of the entrepreneur as a lone hero, the reality is that successful entrepreneurs either built teams about them or were part of a team throughout. For example, when one considers the success of Apple Computers, the name of Steven Jobs immediately springs to mind. However, while Jobs was the charismatic folk hero and visionary, it was Steve Wozniack who invented the first PC model and Mike Markkula who offered the business expertise and access to venture capital (Sculley and Byrne, 1988). DEFINING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP In the early 90s scholars (eg Kamm et al 1990, MÃ ¼ller-BÃ ¶ling and Heil 1994) explored a very important but almost undiscovered field in the entrepreneurship research namely team entrepreneurship.The studies on team ventures are scarce, they often lack a theoretical background or fail to even provide a proper definition of the researched object. Due to this lack of research it has become a real tough proposition to get a comprehensive definition of team entrepreneurship. Some researchers argue that this lack of definition and theoretical framework leads to the contradictory and some times even confusing empirical results in the field of Team Entrepreneurship. Team entrepreneurship does not view the process of entrepreneurship as a preserve of the individuals rather it is seen as a capability and attitudes whereby individual skills are integrated into, group or team, becoming partners in the businesss future evolution.This collective capacity to innovate becomes something greater than the sum of its parts. Ensley, Carland, Carland (1998), combine elements from other definitions found in the literature and establish three conditions which identify an individual as member of an entrepreneurial team: they have either (1) jointly established a firm, (2) a financial interest in, or (3) a direct influence on the strategic alignment of the venture. The most frequently employed definition is that by Kamm et al. (1990), who suggested that an entrepreneurial group is two or more individuals who jointly establish a business in which they have equal financial interest. These individuals are present at the pre-start-up phase of the firm, before it actually begins making goods or services available to the market. However, two substantive elements of this definition are subject to disagreement: (1) the inclusion of the term equal financial interest, where a more open interpretation of financial interest is required instead, and (2) the focus on pre-start-up, because an individual could possibly become a team member at any point in the maturation of the firm. The definition should additionally concentrate on new venture creation rather than on team development within an established organization. An entrepreneurial team be defined as two or more individuals who have a significant financial interest and participate actively in the development of the enterprise. The purpose of significant financial interest is in recognition of the fact that only sporadically would all partners have equal financial interest. However, the question of what constitutes significant remains undefined and should only be considered within a specific context. The intent of the phrase participate actively was designed to eliminate sleeping or silent partners (i.e. those who invest capital but do not involve themselves beyond seeking a return on their investment). Moreover, the definition excludes venture capital firms, banks, and other investment institutions since it is only concerned with individuals. A final point of note to the definition is that it was with regard to the development of the enterprise. This acknowledges the dynamic nature of the enterprise and accedes to the prospect that team membe rs can join (or leave) at any stage of the maturation of the firm. Therefore, the definition is not restricted to pre-start-up but embraces the concept of entrepreneurial teams as fluid and evolutionary. Leon Shjeodt developed another comprehensive definition of entrepreneurial team as a team consisting of two or more persons who have an interest, both financial and otherwise, in and commitment to the ventures future and success; whose work is interdependent in the pursuit of common goals and venture success; who are accountable to the entrepreneurial team and for the venture; who are considered to be at the executive level with executive responsibility in the early phases of the venture, including founding and pre-start up; and who are seen as a social entity by themselves and by others. This definition again brought forward that such team are not necessarily created as pre-start-up rather can be formed at the later stages. Interdependence of the team members for venture performance and accountability are also incorporated alongwith the identity of entrepreneurial teams as a social entity. FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL TEAMS Research has shown that teams start a significant number of new ventures, or a team is created within the first years of start up (Kamm, Shuman, Seeger, Nurick, 1990; Watson, Ponthieu, Critelli, 1995), the quality and composition of the team is a critical determinant of organizational performance (Glick, Miller, Huber, 1993; Hambrick, 1994). According to Cooper and Daily (1997), an entrepreneurial team is more than a group because it involves a shared commitment to the new venture, but they stop short of defining what shared commitment is. Katzenbach (1997) suggests that what must be shared is the accountability. Eisenhardt and Schoonhovens (1990) contribution in defining entrepreneurial team considered: a group of people holding full-time executive positions at the time of founding. Whereas Leon Schjeodt emphasised that it is not necessary to be in the pre-start up or founding phases of the venture to be a part of the entrepreneurial team. It is possible for a person to be considered a part of the entrepreneurial team if the person is brought into the venture in the early phases to help establish the venture. The composition of the entrepreneurial team refers to the collective characteristics of its members (e.g., Banter Jackson, 1989). Entrepreneurial teams are most effective if they balance their skills, knowledge, and abilities as Cooper and Daily (1997) suggest. Heterogeneity in the entrepreneurial teams composition is needed for the team to achieve a high level of effectiveness and venture performance. TMT functional heterogeneity increases the likelihood of strategic change (Lant, Milliken, Batra, 1992; Wiersema Bantel, 1992), increases strategic consensus (Knight et al., 1999), and enhances performance (Bunderson Sutcliffe, 2002), but it can also create cognitive and affective conflict (Amason, 1996; Kamm Nurick, 1993; Miller, Burke, Glick, 1998). Despite this conflict, research suggests that heterogeneous TMTs perform better because their ability to leverage multiple perspectives improves their decision making (e.g., Miller et al., 1998 Simons, Pelled, Smith, 1999). Demographic diversity does not play a very significant role in team formation and composition. Sanjib Chowdhury(2005) suggests that demographic diversity is not important for entrepreneurial team effectiveness, whereas the team process variables positively influence team effectiveness. He also identified that the diversity in terms of gender, age and functional background does not contribute to the team-level cognitive comprehensiveness and team commitment Another aspect of composition is time and its affect on the team. As mentioned earlier, it was found that effects of diversity, especially for demographic characteristics, within the entrepreneurial team decreased over time as the ET engaged in lengthy discussions and solved disagreements and complex problems (Glicket al., 1993; Harrison, Price, Bell, 1998) Two principles of team formation dominate the strategic management literature on teams, although most research concerns the upper echelons of established firms, rather than startups (Forbes et al., 2006).First, a rational process model of team formation emphasizes selecting members based on pragmatic instrumental criteria, such as complementary skills or work experiences. From this viewpoint, competency should shape team formation so that new ventures possess the capabilities needed to manage complexity and growth. Second, a social psychological model emphasizes the interpersonal fit between team members and the need for smoothly functioning group processes. Many scholars have pointed to the important role that social and emotional support play in affecting human behavior (Thoits, 1984). For example, positive social relations within a team can create a supportive context within which people are encouraged to undertake innovative actions. The two sets of principles are not mutually ex clusive. Within the constraints of interpersonal attraction, teams can still search instrumentally for members. Similarly, within the constraints of resource-based needs, teams can still choose people who are attractive. SUSTAINING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT Setting up of an entrepreneurial venture jointly is one aspect but sustaining entrepreneurial groups poses a big challenge. When educated, skilled and dynamic individuals join hands for a venture in the entrepreneurial capacity then firms must assure that their organizational environment is closely matched to their heterogeneity of mental models (e.g.,diversity of ideas and entrepreneurial skills) at all levels, especially at upper-level management. However, an organization composed of individuals with very similar perceptions of the potential services from firms resources and the competitive environment is likely to have a truncated set of productive opportunities. In team entrepreneurship, the team can be as effective as the creative inputs provided by its members, which can expand and be enriched when members learn from each others diverse ideas, perceptions, and expectations. Also, with the inclusion of complementary skills in the team, the cooperative entrepreneurial team can ty pically overcome the limitations of its individual members (Barnard, 1938). An informal organization culture is required to encourage continuous resource learning through interactions in teams. Under conditions that inhibit creative thinking, entrepreneurial experimentation, and risk taking, human resources are likely to function substantially below their full entrepreneurial capacity. It is of utmost important that an environment be created to avoid stifling of creativity of individuals that mar many firms. Individuals must have freedom and opportunities in order to imagine different services of resources, to deploy individual entrepreneurial capital, to renew the firms unique productive opportunity set, and to mobilize invisible assets (Itami Roehl,1987). Individuals are not only allowed to think creatively, but are also encouraged to voice their creative ideas and visions about new product ideas and novel ways to utilize resources. An entrepreneurially stimulating environment provides individuals with resource flexibility and slack for calculative experimentation (Barry, 1991; Dobrev Barnett, 2005; Mosakowski, 1997), which helps mobilize the cognitive assets of the firm that are in the form of heterogeneous mental models. Resource learning and organizational learning involve taking risks, making mistakes, and experimenting with novel solutions and ideas. Pervasive fear of failure and punishment instilled in employees does not belong to entrepreneurial environments, as it can severely constrict risk- taking and resource learning (McGrath McMillan, 2000). Besides seeking creative thinking, effective entrepreneurship requires investments in ideas and rewarding entrepreneurial thinking and experimentation both at the individual level and at the team level. An effective allocation of inducements to encourage entrepreneurial efforts requires recognition of the diversity of individual needs, as some individuals are more interested in material benefits while others are more motivated by social benefits and entrepreneurial engagement. Furthermore, the element of time as a scarce resource (Mahoney, 2005; Mosakowski,1993) deserves special attention in entrepreneurship research because developing a productive opportunity set for the firm requires personal (tacit) knowledge of the firms material and human resources, which can only be developed over time as entrepreneurs interact and experiment with the firms bundle of resources. Importance of time management is also be attributed to the diverse mental inputs as the entrepreneurs need time and place to think and function together to produce synergistic cognitive outcomes. KEY ATTRIBUTES OF TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP Based upon the review of researches done on the definitional and compositional aspects of entrepreneurial teams some of the key factors of team entrepreneurship can be identified as follows: Entrepreneurship is no more a lone action. Team based approach is required to lead to fast growth. One of the major forces that led to the evolution of team entrepreneurship is the entry level barriers that confronted small firms. To overcome the restrictions imposed by large firms on entry, many Small and medium sized firms formed themselves into teams. A jointly established business by a group of individuals as well as any individual joining the firm at a later stage in the entrepreneurial capacity comes under the preview of team entrepreneurship. That would mean a team formed for new venture creation where all members will be founder member/ a person joining the founder team at a later stage/ teams formed within an enterprise for entrepreneurial ventures. Within an organisation, entrepreneurial teams may exist at different levels. Top management teams (TMT), corporate entrepreneurship, shop-floor entrepreneurship etc are such teams that are created within the organization for innovation and creativity. Entrepreneurial groups do not incorporate passive or sleeping members. Active participation in strategic, managerial and operational level is warranted. Only that individual can be considered as a member of entrepreneurial team who bears direct influence on strategic areas of the venture. Need for personal risk taking is reduced as team entrepreneurship marks sharing of financial interests. Sharing may or may not be equal but a significant financial interest in the venture is required by the individual to be a member of entrepreneurial team. Pooling of financial resources and sharing of financial risks are the key drivers for team ventures. A diverse skill set is available in an entrepreneurial team. Individual limitations are overcome and synergic effects can be observed very lucidly. The individual knowledge, capabilities and attributes get integrated into a team hence leading to success of the venture. Issues of group dynamics need to be addressed in team entrepreneurship. Issues related to control, ownership, role; responsibilities etc need to be handled at the very outset to avoid problems at later stage. Too many contributing minds can pose a problem as well. Diversity in terms of demography, culture, skill set, knowledge and experience etc at one hand may be the strength of the team but if not taken care of may lead to dysfunctional conflict among the teams. Informal social interaction, friendship, time for discussions, respect for individual opinion and team opinion being given the highest regard, creative environment are some of the factors that may keep the dysfunctional conflicts at bay and might be helpful in sustaining such teams. Innovation and creativity are the key ingredients of entrepreneurial teams. Innovative thinking and creativity in decision making will keep the individuals with entrepreneurial instincts bound in a team. Brain-storming of new ideas, creative methods of working and creating and innovation of new modes, techniques or project as team provide thrill for such individuals and may be may be instrumental in key the team together and performing. FORMS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL TEAMS The team phenomenon in entrepreneurship is visible in many forms , Johannisson has observed two different perspectives in identifying existence of group entrepreneurship First perspective regards teaming up of individuals as the way of initiating and organizing the entrepreneurial process and second perspective is group entrepreneurship as regards the outcome of entrepreneurial processes. Family Business: Family Businesses are operated by and for families with the intention of keeping the firm within the family after succession. Members of the family run their business collectively hence represent an image of group entrepreneurship. Partnership: Partnership refers to teaming up of individuals for venturing into some common business. In that context partnership gets associated with group entrepreneurship. Co-operatives: Cooperatives offer a formal structure with joint ownership and control and hence visibly represents the group entrepreneurship. TMT: Top management teams can either be the founder teams of new venture or teams created within an organization for leadership role. Virtual organisations: It is a mode of organizing where independent partner firms put in a joint effort to materialize the promises carried by the leading firms products to its customers. The challenge is to make the customer perceive the virtual organisation as a whole.(Johannisson 2002: 18). Extrapreneurship: For Daval (2002), it materializes by the development of a new entity by an employee when he leaves his firm, helped in taking this step by his former employer. Extrapreneurship is now more commonly adopted by a group of employees leaving their respective organisation and joining their skill set to start new venture Shop floor entrepreneurship: Shop floor entrepreneurship refers to the concept of self-organising groups and teams created for entrepreneurial purposes by employees at shop floor level. According to Johannisson (2002: 19), Sweden and other Scandinavian countries have a long tradition of self-organising in groups on the shop floor (in contrast to intrapreneurship that usually focuses middle-management). Corporate entrepreneurship: Johannisson (2002) seems to refer to intrapreneurship here (The intrapreneur, operating a quasi-independent venture within the corporation as an arena for entrepreneurship. Corporate Entrepreneurship (CE) is the process by which individuals inside organisations pursue opportunities without regard to the resources they currently control (Stevenson, Roberts, and Grousbeck, 1999) Intellectual Entrepreneurship Johannisson et al. (1999) have introduced the notion of intellectual entrepreneur to depict those people who mobilise their intellectual capabilities in an entrepreneurial career. Community entrepreneurship: Johannisson and Nilsson (1989) have introduced the notion of community entrepreneur to capture persons who use personal networking to mobilize internal as well as external resources to promote local venturing processes. FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP To create a conceptual framework of team entrepreneurship on the basis of available inputs on entrepreneurial teams, the factors affecting such teams at different stages of team formation, composition and sustenance dynamics have been identified. Entrepreneurial teams can be formed either at prestart-up stage and/or at post start up stage .New ventures, partnership firms, extrapreneurship specifically fall under the category of pre-start-up teams, corporate entrepreneurship and shop floor entrepreneurship come under the category of post start-up teams and TMTs, family businesses, cooperatives, virtual organizations, intellectual entrepreneurship etc can either be forms as pre start up or post start up teams. Forms of entrepreneurial teams can also be viewed from the aspect of level of management at which such teams operates. For that purpose TMTs are formed at top level, corporate entrepreneurial teams at middle level and shop-floor teams at operational level. Regarding the team comp osition, issues as to why team is required and who can be the part of the team need to be addressed. As is obvious by now, the rationale behind creating a team rather than functioning solo is sharing of resources, skills, risk, knowledge etc an effective entrepreneurial team may be composed of individual with wide knowledge, skills and competencies. Such individuals must not be averse to risk and experimentation. Creativity and innovation should be the drivers of such individuals. Sustenance of such teams require a great deal of managing group dynamics. Diversity in demography and cultural may not be instrumental in enhancing performance but can be a deterrent if not handled well. Variable mental inputs and variable degree of creative and innovation instincts may also give rise to conflicts.Figure 1-1 tabulates all the factors affecting team entrepreneurship FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP TEAM FORMATION* TEAM COMPOSITION TEAM DYNAMICS As per joining of team members: Resource-sharing Risk-sharing Complementary skill set Enriching knowledge and competency base Experience Experimentation Risk-seeking Innovation Creativity Social interaction Diversity in skills Diverse mental inputs Demographic heterogeneity Interpersonal relations Cultural diversity Time Diverse appetite of creativity Diverse cognitive needs Pre-start-up teams: New venture teams, Extrapreneurship, partnership family business, cooperatives, virtual organisations etc Post-start-up teams: TMTs, Corporate entrepreneurship, Shop-floor entrepreneurship, cooperatives, family business, virtual organisations etc As per levels of Management Strategic level: TMT Tactic level: corporate entrepreneurship Operational level: shop-floor entrepreneurship *forms of teams are not mutually exclusive CONCLUSION As again the notion of entrepreneurship being a solo act, several researchers have proved that the present is the era of teams. No person is equipped enough to build an empire all by himself. No conqueror has won the battle alone, no CEO can run a company without a team. Team based entrepreneurial ventures have proved to be successful provided an effective organizational model is developed for its sustenance. Researches have shown a considerable success rate for team ventures especially undertaken at SME level. Another notion of entrepreneurial team being the team of founder who start a new venture has also been proved lop-sided. Existence of entrepreneurial teams can be traced in various forms and at multiple levels. This paper was an attempt to bring together the knowledge created by many researchers but may suffer from many limitations. The studies considered for the review are not exhaustive and hence the findings may also not be exhaustive. A lot of further research need to be d one on the topic because team entrepreneurship is going to be the buzz-word for the future. Global slowdown has significantly highlighted the importance of risk sharing in business ventures. Team entrepreneurship can be considered as the most viable and effective mode of venturing in the present and future scenario given its benefits of sharing of resources, skills, and above all financial risks. *Assistant professor, GNIMT, Model Town Ludhiana